Administrative Law Notes Essay

Please note that this is a draft. The material is under revision. ?This material has been prepared by John P. Sangwa and was initially part of a larger study undertaken by the author. The material is meant for students studying L341. The reproduction for any purpose whatsoever of this work or any part thereof in any form or manner is not allowed without the permission of the author. What is Administrative Law? Administrative law, as a subject, has defied definite and concrete definition. Most scholars have confined themselves to formulating working definitions within the context of their works. There is, however, agreement that administrative law is concerned with powers and procedures for the use of those powers by public officers and institutions responsible for the performance of the functions of the state. It includes, especially, the law governing judicial review of administrative actions. Administrative law is law that governs those who administer any part of governmental activities. Administrative law is not the substantive law produced by the agencies, and it is not the substantive law created by the legislative bodies or courts and administered by the agencies; instead, administrative law is the law, which governs the powers and procedures of agencies. It includes procedural law created by the agencies but not the substantive law created by them, such as tax law, labour law, public utility law, transportation law, welfare law, town and country planning law, and the like. Administrative Law Distinguished from Constitutional Law There is a distinction between constitutional law and administrative law. Constitution law refers to the formal rules, in the case of Zambia, embodied in one single document referred to as the constitution, which establish the main institutions of the state, prescribe their powers, their relation with each other and their collective position vis-a-vis the citizens. Administrative law on the other hand focuses on the powers vested in these institutions and how they use them. For instance, the Banking and Financial Services Act, 1994, confers on the Bank of Zambia, the powers to regulate banking and regulated financial services and issue the necessary regulations from time to time. The Act itself and the regulations made pursuant thereto are not themselves of concern of administrative law. However, administrative law would touch on the authority of the Bank of Zambia to make regulations and upon the procedure employed in making them. Administrative law tends to focus on three aspects of administration: rule-making procedure, where the public institutions or officers are conferred powers to make rules, adjudicative procedure where there is power to make decisions and judicial review, which focuses on the power of the court to review decisions of public institution to ensure that they are intra-vires the empowering legal instruments, and to declare them ultra-vires, where they are not 2 The Scope and Administrative Law Administrative law is concerned with public authorities. It is concerned with the way power is acquired, where the public authorities get their powers from and the nature of those powers. It determines whether the exercise of a power subject to any particular procedure, or whether it must be exercised in any particular form. If so, it addresses the effect of failing to do so. It focuses on how to ensure that powers are used only for the purpose for which they are given – and that they are used effectively and efficiently. Administrative law is concerned not only with power but also with liabilities both of authorities and of their employees. It is concerned with the bodies, which exercise these powers – central government departments, public corporations, local authorities and other institutions. The role of the courts, as independent institutions, in providing some checks on the exercise of public powers is the concern of administrative law. The courts are concerned with the legality of the administrative actions. Administrative law must be seen as an instrument of control of the exercise of administrative powers. Administrative law, like any other branch of law is not an end in itself but means of getting things done by creating through the legal process, institutions, and granting them powers and imposing on them duties. The decision maker is subject to the law, but at the same time, he sees the law as something to use to achieve some end which society has chosen. Administrative law is a concern of a lawyer as much as for the public officers. There is need for public power, but there is also need for protection against its abuse. Administrative law attempts to address the age-old problem of abuse of power. Administrative law as discussed in this course is limited to law concerning powers, procedures, and judicial review. It does not include the enormous mass of substantive law produced by the various agencies. Although public institutions are created by statutes, by executive order authorised by statute, and by constitutional provisions, and although their principal powers and functions are normally defined by the instruments, which create them, the great bulk of administrative law is judge-made law. Some of the judge-made law either is or purports to be founded on constitutional or statutory interpretation. However, other judge-made law is made sometimes without reliance on either constitutional or statutory provisions. 3 SOURCES OF ADMINISTRATIVE LAW Introduction By sources we mean where one can look for answer whenever and administrative law issue arises. Administrative law is wherever law is. It is founded on the Constitution. It is in the statutes and in any form of statutory instrument. Administrative law is also in the form of common law made by the courts and in the form of procedural rules made by administrative agencies themselves. Constitution The entire Zambian Constitution is in a way a source of administrative law. It is a limitation on government. It creates various organs of government and prescribes what they may or may not do and how they can do what they are empowered to do. For instance, Article 30 of the Constitution confers power upon the President to declare, after consultations with Cabinet, that a state of public emergency exists in Zambia. The said provision puts a limitation on the exercise of this power by the President. The President can declare a state of emergency only after he has consulted with Cabinet. Failure to do so may render such a declaration null and void. Whether or not there has been compliance with the provisions of the constitution or whether the power has been exercised for the intended purposes is the concern of administrative law. Statutes Very often statutes, which create public institutions, prescribe their powers and how they are to be exercised. It is the concern of administrative law to ensure that such powers are used for the realisation of the policy objectives on which in the statute is founded and not any other goals. Common Law The common law is creation of the courts. Following the concept of staredecisis, courts will decide a case today in the same way they decided in other cases in the past if comparable factual situations are involves. There is therefore a huge volume of guidelines on how the courts will decide a given case and this collection of clues is called common law. Common law prevails on a point of law so long as there is no statute, regulation, or constitutional provision, which contradicts it. Judicial interpretations of statutes, regulations, and constitutional provisions are part of the common law. Much of the administrative law principles are in the form of common law. Formal laws do not regulate every aspect of administrative authority. For instance, the idea that no one should be punished unheard is law, which has been embraced by the courts as one of the common law principles. 4 Much of what is administrative based on the constitution is in fact common law. The Constitution is brief and at times vague. It is therefore, interpreted by the courts. It is in sense good that the Constitution is sometimes vague. This enables the each generation to interpreter it to accommodate social, political and other changes Administrative Instruments Some of the instruments with the force of law, which regulate public institutions, are made by the institutions themselves. This kind of law is imposed on the institutions by the public institutions themselves. It is often in response to public pressure and public expectations exerted in different ways throughout the political process. For instance, the Industrial and Labour Relations Act has created the Industrial Relations Court. In order to ensure that people have access to the Court and receive fair hearing the Court has set its own rules, binding on itself and parties to the dispute, who have moved the Court. The rules, which the public institutions impose upon themselves, are often found in the same statute along with other rules and regulations made by the institutions. For instance, in 1996, the President issued a directive that housing units owned by the government and local authorities be sold to sitting tenants. A circular to that effect was issued by Cabinet govern this exercise. Any dispute in this regard has been resolved by referring to this circular. As for the units owned by local authorities, the Ministry of Local Government and Housing issued a similar circular. The first phase began from the moment British influence was established in the territory, which became known as Northern Rhodesia. The second phase, began long after the first phase had been properly grounded, focuses on judicial review; and the dominant part of judicial review is constitutional and statutory interpretation. Whereas other Western countries have already gone through the third phase, which focuses on procedures for formal adjudication and formal rule making, Zambia is just embarking on this phase. 9The value of such an approach is ably illustrated by Gordon R. Woodman, â€Å"Constitutions in a World of Powerful Semi-Autonomous Social Fields†, Third World Legal Studies – 1989, 120. He observes at pp. 2-3. : Although the skills of a lawyer are useful in the study of non-state laws, an adequate appreciation requires some revision of the traditional approach of students of state law. It is necessary to discard the concepts and axioms induced by the tendency o f state laws to deny the legitimacy of other laws†¦. An effective state constitutional order takes account of the social realities which affect its objects and functioning. In Africa, where the relative unimportance of state law is at least as marked as anywhere else, other social orderings cannot realistically be overlooked. 39 The Development of Administrative Structures Zambia is a product of greed and conquest by the powerful, and of the weak seeking a haven for peace and security. The dispersal from the north, which involved the Lozi, Bemba, Lunda and other tribes, was largely precipitated by smaller chieftaincies seeking independence. However, the migration of the Ngoni and the Kololo from the south was for the search of a sanctuary. The coming of Europeans brought another dimension to the history of Territory. Their conquest of the Territory was for economic reasons: to find raw materials to keep the wheels of the factories in Europe turning and good land to settle the landless people of Europe. The realisation of the economic objective was possible only if both internal and external threats to British presence in the area were taken care of. The internal threats were addressed through the power of the pen, like in the case of the Litunga of Barotseland, and through the power of the sword as against the Ngoni. The motivating force was the greed of the private entrepreneurs. The role of the Imperial Government was merely that of protecting the interests of its citizens when threatened by another imperial power or forces within the Territory. The history of Northern Rhodesia is also a history of two competing cultures, one claiming superiority over the other. The Europeans came with new ideas about social formations. All the existing tribal groupings were broken down and made part of one heterogeneous society curved out of the entire continent without regard to history, customs and origins. The impact of Western colonial rule is still indelibly imprinted in Zambia decades after independence. As Europeans moved into the non-Western world, north of the Zambezi, as traders, merchants, missionaries and adventurers, they carried with them expectations that all societies should be properly organised as states possessing attributes of sovereignty and adhering to rule of law. 0 This was not the case in the area, which became known as Northern Rhodesia. After the establishment of settlements, Europeans insisted that human relations, and more particularly the management of disputes, should fall under explicit and universally based laws. 21 To make life much more amiable 20Lucian W. Pye, â€Å"Law and the Dilemma of Stability and Change in the Modernization Process,† Vanderbilt Law Review 17 (1963), 24-25. 21Ibid. 40 they started building the state structures. The administrative structures, which emerged, made up the constitutional structures for the Territory. 2 The Making of Northern Rhodesia As a geographical unit, Zambia was created through the initiative of Britain during the partition of Africa. Following the examples of other European powers at the time in staking claims to large territories in the Africa, Britain was keen to extend sovereignty north of South Africa. Little effort was necessary to persuade the Crown to grant John Cecil Rhodes, at his request, a Charter incorporating the British South Africa Company, which was to pursue British interests in the area. This Charter was granted in 1889. The Charter empowered the Company to acquire territories through concessions, agreements and treaties by or with indigenous rulers and administer it – without any financial assistance from the British Government. The Company’s field of operation was defined to be the territory north of the Crown colony of British Bechuanaland and of the Transvaal and west of the Portuguese possessions in East Africa. Rhodes sent agents to conclude treaties with local rulers. Through such treaties and conquests of the more militant tribes, Rhodes effectively asserted his, and ultimately British presence. It now remained for Britain to secure the agreements of other European powers in accordance with the terms of the Berlin conference of 1884 – 1885. This was done through a series of treaties, which collectively determined the present border of Zambia. The name â€Å"Rhodesia† was first used to refer to the territories (obtained by Rhodes) in 1895. It was officially approved in 1897, by the British Government. In 1895, due to its vastness the territory was, administratively, divided by the BSA Company into two: North-Western Rhodesia and North-Eastern Rhodesia. Both of them were being administered by the Company under the supervision of the British High Commissioners in South Africa and Nysaland respectively. At the time, a few outposts of administration were being established in the sparsely populated territories. In 1899 and 1900, two very important Orders in council were promulgated. The Orders, the Barotse North-Western Rhodesia Order in council and the North-Eastern Rhodesia Order in council, clarified the provisions relating to 22See H. F. Morris and J. S. Read, â€Å"Indirect Rule and the Search for justice†, (1972), 287, quoted n Filip Reyjents, â€Å"Authoritarianism in Francophone Africa from the Colonial to the Post Colonial State†, Third World legal Studies – 1988, p. 59. 41 the administration of the two territories to which they referred and also established the territories as â€Å"colonial protectorates†. Under the North-Eastern Rhodesia Order in Council, 1900 North Eastern Rhodesia was to be admin istered by an ‘administrator’, appointed by the Company with the approval of the Secretary of State for Colonies. The administrator was empowered to make regulations for the administration of justice, the raising of revenue and generally for â€Å"†¦ he peace order and good government†. These regulations had to be approved by Her Majesty’s Commissioner for the British Central African Protectorate (Nyasaland now Malawi) and could be disallowed by the Secretary of State. The Commissioner himself could initiate legislation termed â€Å"Queen’s Regulations†. Under the North-Western Rhodesia Order in Council, 1899, the British Government retained firmer control in North-Western Rhodesia through the High Commissioner in South Africa because of the unresolved issue of the western border of the territory with the Portuguese territory of Angola. The issue was not resolved until 1905. The High Commissioner had the power to legislate by proclamation. The Company had administrative powers, which were exercise through an administrator. Developments in the two areas indicated that they would best be administered as one territory. In 1911, Barotse North-Western Rhodesia and North-Eastern Rhodesia were merged to form Northern Rhodesia. The Company retained its administrative authority in the new territory. It was empowered to appoint an administrator for the territory, subject to the approval of the Secretary of State. The legislative authority, which was to be exercised by proclamations, remained in the High Commissioner in South Africa. This arrangements prevailed until 1924 when company rule was terminated. Administration of Justice (a) Developments Under Company Rule: The major concern of the settlers was to establish structures for the settlement of disputes. Amongst the first institutions to be established in the territory were the courts. The major task of the Company was to establish the basic instruments of government administration. The judicial functions of the government were undeveloped. Nonetheless, the legislative framework for the establishment of courts was already in existence. The Africa Order in Council of 1889, provided that every person holding Her Majesty’s Commission as a Consul-General should, if so authorised by the Secretary of State, form a consular court. This Order in Council even provided a code for criminal and civil procedure. In the event, it was not found 42 necessary to establish any consular courts as reliance was placed upon the second method of establishing courts: the Charter of the British South Africa Company itself. One of the fundamental principles which was to be respected in the administration of justice was the need to differentiate between the indigenous people and the immigrants. Section 14 of the Charter directed the Company to have â€Å"careful regard† to the laws and customs of the local tribes. Thus, the courts which were established were limited in their jurisdictions to give effect to this principle. Between 1899 and 1909, two hierarchies of courts were established in Barotse North-Western Rhodesia and North-Eastern Rhodesia. Each consisted of a High Court, Magistrates’ courts, the Administrator’s Court and Native Commissioners Courts. The High Courts were courts of unlimited jurisdiction and administered English law and local enactment, except in civil cases between Africans, when they were required to administer African customary law. The Administrators’ Courts also had similar jurisdiction as the High Court. They were introduced to enable the Administrators of the territories to have a role in the administration of justice. The Magistrates’ Courts were courts of first instance with limited jurisdiction. They were mainly concerned with adjudicating over disputes between white settlers and with administering criminal law. The law administered in these courts was English law. The Native Commissioners’ courts were established in order to administer African customary law between natives. All the judges and the members of the other courts were nominated by the Company but appointed by the British High Commissioner in South Africa. They were amenable to dismissal as well. Although existing African traditional courts were not officially recognised, some limited protection was extended to customary law. First by the Barotse North-Western Rhodesia Order 1899 and later by the North-Eastern Rhodesia Order 1900, which for the first time invoked the repugnancy clause. This clause provided that customary law be to be administered so far it was not â€Å"repugnant to natural justice or morality† or to any statutory law. Two systems of courts were established in each of the two territories by 1909. One system administered English law and statutory law between Europeans in civil cases. It also administered English penal law for all the inhabitants of the territory. The other system administered African customary law in civil cases between Africans. In 1911, when it was decided to combine North-Western Rhodesia and NorthEastern Rhodesia into a single country, it also became necessary to re-organise 3 the judicial system. However, as there also existed two well-established judicial systems, few changes were necessary beyond merging the two systems into one. There emerged a High Court of unlimited original and appellate jurisdiction, magistrates’ courts and native commissioners’ courts. The Administrator’s court was abolished. High Court judges were henceforth appointed by the Secretary of State in Britain. The officers in lower courts were appointed by the Company. Between 1911 and 1924, only minor changes effected to the judicial system and none of these affected the judicial system or its basic structure. b) Developments During Direct British Administration: During the early part of the 1920’s it became apparent, Northern Rhodesia was becoming too costly and complicated a territory to be administered by a company. In 1924, the company relinquished its powers in favour of direct British rule. The 1911 Northern Rhodesia Order was revoked and in its place was promulgated the Northern Rhodesia Order in Council, 1924 and the Northern Rhodesia (Legislative Council) Order in Council, 1924, and the Royal Instructions to the Governor of 1924. These three documents together constituted the basic constitutional instruments of Northern Rhodesia. The Northern Rhodesia Order established the office of Governor, to represent the Crown. He was assisted by an executive council, the members of which were appointed by the Crown and served at his pleasure. In accordance with the â€Å"colonial protectorate† status of the territory, constituent power remained in the Crown and was exercised through Orders in Council made under the Foreign Jurisdictions Acts of 1890 and 1913. However, for the purpose of enacting laws to facilitate the administration of the country, a legislative council, dominated by (appointed) officials, was established. This council exercised its legislative power through the enactment of ordinances. The change from company rule to direct British rule did not necessitate radical changes to the judicial system. The changes made merely reflected change-over to colonial rule. The power to determine the number of judges and magistrates in the country and to appoint them subject, in the case of judges, to such instructions as the Crown might give was vested in the Governor. There were also provisions permitting appeals from the High Court to the Privy Council. In 1938, it was decided to establish a court of appeal for the three British colonies in central Africa, comparable to the East African Court of Appeal and Court of Appeal for West Africa. This Court was called the Court of Appeal 44 for Rhodesia and Nyasaland. The court was established under Ordinance No. 35 of 1938. It became the highest court for the three territories in criminal cases but provisions were included for further appeals to the Privy Council in civil cases. Meanwhile, the important issue of how best to administer the affairs of Africans was receiving much attention. It was decided soon after the assumption of direct British administration to extend the famous principles of indirect rule, to the territory. This principle, which had already been applied in other British colonies, entailed the use of existing African institutions to effect colonial rule, thereby minimizing both the antagonism of the people and expenditure. Indirect rule was implemented in Northern Rhodesia by establishing native authorities and recognising native courts. Native authorities were established in all areas of the territory nd were vested with minimal local government powers such as taxation and policing. Native courts were first recognised by statute in 1929, with the enactment of the Native Courts Ordinance. Under this ordinance, the Governor was empowered to constitute any â€Å"chief, headman, elder or council of elders† in any area into a native court. This did not, however, prevent the exercise of judicial powers by those who already did so in their own com munities. The Native Courts established under this Ordinance were separate from the rest of the judiciary: the High Court and the magistrates’ courts. No appeals lay from the Native Courts to the Magistrates’ Court or to the High Court. Nevertheless, there were already in existence some Native Commissioner’s Courts. These assumed the role of appellate courts in relation to the Native Courts. Native courts were only empowered to administer customary law and to adjudicate over civil cases in which the parties included Africans. In 1936, it was deemed necessary to clarify the status and jurisdictional limitation of native courts. This was done by the enactment of the Native Courts Ordinance 1936 and the Barotse Native Courts Ordinance 1936. Apart from these changes, which enabled the Government to establish a number of native courts covering the whole territory, this system of administering justice remained in force until 1966. (c) Developments During the Federation of Rhodesia and Nysaland: Even before the Second World War, two issues were to dominate Northern Rhodesian politics and determine its constitutional development: the demand by African nationalists for majority rule and/or self-determination and the campaign by white settlers for closer association or amalgamation with 45 Southern Rhodesia. As early as 1929, the Hilton Young Commission advised that: In the present state of communications the main interests of Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia, economic and political, lie not in association with the eastern African territories, but rather with the self-governing colony of Southern Rhodesia. In 1938, the Bledisloe Commission was appointed to â€Å"explore the feasibility of closer association between the two Rhodesias and Nyasaland. † The Commission also endorsed the idea of closer association between the three territories, but did not recommend immediate steps in that irection. Nonetheless, consultations continued between white politicians in Northern Rhodesia and Southern Rhodesia and the British Government. Finally, at a conference held at Victoria Falls, in Northern Rhodesia, in 1951, a firm decision was arrived at recommending to the British Government the establishment of a federation in Central Africa. This recommendation was accepted. The Federation of Rhodes ia and Nyasaland Act, enacted by the British Parliament in 1953, authorised the Queen to establish such a federation. In the same year, the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (Constitution) Order in Council joined the three territories to form the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Under the federal scheme, the three territories retained their respective statuses: Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland remained protectorates, while Southern Rhodesia remained a colony. The Constitution provided for the office of a Governor-General, appointed by the Crown. He was the personal representative of the Crown. The Constitution also established a federal legislature of thirty-five members. This body had legislative power over certain matters exclusive of the territorial legislatures (the federal legislative list) and powers to legislate over other matters concurrently with the territorial legislatures. The establishment of the Federation had one important effect upon the judicial system of Zambia. The Federal Constitution established a Federal Supreme Court. The Court consisted of the Chief Justice, appointed by the Governor-General and between two and six judges, who were to include the Chief Justices of the three territories. Under Article 53 of the Constitution, the Supreme Court had exclusive jurisdiction over matters relating to the interpretation of the Constitution and matters in which the Federal Government was a party. The Supreme Court also had appellate jurisdiction from the High Courts of the three territories. Article 61 provided for appeals from the Supreme Court to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. 46 The idea of establishing the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was not supported by all the sectors of the population. The Africans of Northern Rhodesia, in particular, had vehemently opposed any form of association with Southern Rhodesia. Instead, they had campaigned for reforms to the electoral law to introduce universal adult suffrage. As African political parties were formed Africans began to demand self-government and independence from British rule. The decade 1953 to 1963 was volatile in Northern Rhodesia. The many factors of that era culminated in a general election, based on â€Å"one man one vote†, in 1962, which was won by the United National Independence Party, led by Kenneth Kaunda. He formed a coalition government with the African National Congress in 1963. The Federation was dissolved in that year. In 1964, under yet another constitution, fresh elections were held which were won outright by the United National Independence Party. This Party formed the first Government when Northern Rhodesia was granted independence in October 1964. (d) Developments After Independence: The new constitution provided for a popularly elected executive President who was also the Head of State. It also provided for a Vice-President and a cabinet appointed from among the members of the National Assembly. The legislative power was vested in a Parliament consisting of the President and single chamber National Assembly. The Assembly consisted of seventy-five elected members, not more than five nominated members nominated by the President and a Speaker. The legislative power was exercised through Bills passed by the National Assembly and assented to by the President. Enactments were termed â€Å"Acts of Parliament†. Quite expectedly, independence brought about some changes in the judicial system of Zambia. The dissolution of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland ended the Federal Supreme Court. Within Zambia, the January 1964 Constitution established a Court of Appeal with unlimited appellate jurisdiction. The Independence Constitution also provided for a Court of Appeal consisting the Chief Justice, one Justice of Appeal and other puisne judges. The Constitution also empowered the President to declare that the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council should be an appeal court for the Republic. The President never exercised this power and the provision was not repeated in the 1973 Constitution. The Independence Constitution created a Judicial Service Commission under the chairmanship of the Chief Justice. The Constitution conferred advisory and executive functions over appointments to judicial offices upon the 7 commission. The provisions relating to the Judicial Service Commission were substantially retained under the 1973 constitution. The subordinate courts were retained by and large in their old form even after independence. Various aspects of the Subordinate Courts had undergone changes since the enactment of the Subordinate Courts Act in 1934. The changes related mostly to jurisdi ction and other related matters, and did not affect the basic structure and status of these courts. After 1964, the notable change was in the manner of appointing magistrates. They were to be appointed by the Judicial Service Commission. Some radical changes were made at the level of the Native Courts. The general feeling at the time was that Native Courts had to be integrated in the judiciary. The first step came in the form of provision that appointments of the Native Courts’ presiding justices were henceforth to be made by the Judicial Service Commission. Meanwhile, initiatives were underway for the enactment of a new statute to provide for Native Courts. The Local Courts Act was enacted in 1966. It repealed the Native Courts Ordinance and the Barotse Native Courts Ordinance. It constituted Local Courts in place of Native Courts. It provided for appeals from Local Courts to Magistrates’ Courts. The 1966 Local Courts Act was aimed at integrating the Local Courts into the judiciary to produce one hierarchy of courts instead of two. The introduction of the one-party system did not bring about major changes in the judicial system of Zambia. It did, however, bring about one important change. The Court of Appeal was abolished and in its place, a Supreme Court was established. Very little has changed in the judiciary even after the introduction of the Constitution of 1991. The same is true even after the enactment of the Constitution amendment Act No. 18 of 1996. Before concluding this part, it is important to summarise the judicial system in place today. The Supreme Court of Zambia, established under Article 91 of the Constitution is the highest court in the country. It is a court of unlimited appellate jurisdiction. It consists of the Chief Justice, the Deputy Chief Justice and seven appeal judges or such greater number as may be prescribed in an Act of Parliament. The High Court of Zambia is the second highest court. It is a court of unlimited original and appellate jurisdiction, except for matters specifically reserved for the Industrial and Labour Relations Court and has original jurisdiction over all civil and criminal matters. The High Court consists of the Chief Justice (ex-officio) and such number of puisne judges as may be determined in an Act of Parliament. The High Court also has supervisory powers over all proceedings in all the courts subordinate to it. 48 The Constitutional Amendment Act No. 18 of 1996 has introduced an interesting development in the number of courts for the Republic. The Industrial Relations, which was from its inception a tribunal is now, became part of the Judicature of Zambia. The real benefits of this change are hard to see, but the most immediate problem has been confusion between the powers of the High Court and that of the Industrial Relations. Furthermore, whereas the role of the Industrial Relations Court is to do substantial justice, there is a steady departure from this guiding principle. The Industrial Relations Court has become more and more legalistic in its determination of cases although, as an institution, is it ill-equipped for this role. Cases are determined not on the basis of the facts of the case or in order to do substantial justice, but because there are legal precedents to that effect especially those from the Supreme Court. The other courts down the hierarchy are the subordinate courts. These are provided for under the Subordinate Courts Act. They are presided over by magistrates. Both the courts and the magistrates are divided into classes, and the relationship of the various classes of magistrates to the various classes of subordinate courts is clearly stated by Section 3 of the Act. There shall be and are hereby constituted courts subordinate to the High Court in each district as follows: (i) A Subordinate Court of the first class to be presided over by a Senior Resident magistrate, Resident Magistrate or a magistrate of the first class; (ii) a Subordinate Court of the second class to be presided over by a magistrate of the second class; (iii)a Subordinate Court of the third class to be presided over by a magistrate of the third class. The jurisdiction of each subordinate court is limited both territorially and substantively on a graduating scale depending on the class of the court and the magistrate. Subordinate courts also have appellate jurisdiction to hear appeals from local courts. Finally, at the bottom of the hierarchy of courts are the Local Courts, established under the Local Courts Act 1966. They are presided over by Local Court presidents. Their jurisdiction is limited both territorially and in terms of the substantive law. With regard to the latter, the statute provides that they may only administer African customary law and such other statutory laws as may be explicitly extended to them.

Library System Essay

Technology has already become one of the essentials of a person’s daily living. Without it, life would be much more complicated for people will still always have to do things manually. It has already helped billions of people here on the planet. It simply makes life much easier. It makes tasks easier and faster to accomplish. Furthermore, technology has already been a part of our daily lives. It is everywhere; from the simplest things like mobile phones to the biggest machineries. It is already given to people and it’s up to you to maximize its use to the fullest. Technology is needed everywhere; grocery stores, malls, offices and especially in schools. Not only should the students learn how to use technology, computers to be exact. It also has to be learned by the instructors to keep up with this fast-growing computer age. In line with this, they also need it to ease their tasks from calculating grades to simple library systems. Handling a library could be a very complicated task as you need to keep an updated list of the books being used, borrowed and returned. Also, a librarian’s task is to organize these books so that it would be easier to find. Most libraries still stick to the manual system from long ago. This makes their job more complicated and more time consuming. A library system is important to a library to make the job for looking, arranging, borrowing and returning of books simpler with just a couple of clicks. Books would be much easier to find and borrowing and returning of books would be updated easily. With everything systemized and automatic, it will lessen the job of the librarian. 1. 1Background of the Study San Roque Catholic School is parochial catholic school located beside San Roque de Alabang Parish, Mendiola, Alabang, Muntinlupa City. It was established in 1981 by parish priest, Monsignor Tomas T. Gonzales. Its first batch was made up of one hundred forty one students which were divided into three sections. It was in 1982 when its three-storey building was begun to be built, due to the increase of the population of the students in the following year. Their first principal was Miss Lydia Santos. For 31 years, San Roque Catholic School has been providing affordable, high quality education to its students aiming to cultivate spirituality, evangelize and spread Christianity. In the present, San Roque Catholic School has a population of about nine hundred to one thousand two hundred students and approximately 20-25 faculty members. It already has two campuses: The main which is the original building and the annex that serves as the building for the elementary students which is in Ilaya, Alabang, Muntinlupa City. The school library is located at the 3rd floor of St. Roch building. It was built by joining two rooms together. Half of the library contains the librarian’s desk, books, and tables. The other side is where magazines, newspapers, computer units, and the latest books are. The number of books hasn’t grown that much for the past years. It has approximately 1000-1500 books. An average of 10-20 classes visits the library every day. Almost half of the class borrows books. Although they already have an existing library system, the librarian still finds it inefficient to manage the books for the students. On our system, we have our current features; Login system with History log, for security on the administrators and assistants. The system has simple processes like add, edit & archive a book to database, and Filtered book search results. Has a book preview pane, gives the librarian the image of the front page of the book. Have Corporate GUI design that is neat and user friendly. Everyday alert, gives the librarian each updates on everyday processes and transactions. Daily, Weekly & Monthly Reports and has an penalty which is very convenient. 1. 2 Statement of the Problem After gathering information, the proponents found the following problems: General Problem The school manual library system is time consuming and is sometimes inaccurate. This doubles the job at hand. The proponents also found out that the penalty of the due books is sometimes miscalculated by the manual system, which can hinder the library’s implementation of rules against overdue books. It usually takes long for the librarian to accommodate many borrowers at a time because of the system’s process. Specific Problem 1. The system cannot view the content of each book when borrowing. 2. The system process is not easy. 3. The system lacks of security. 4. The system cannot confirm the identity of the book that is being borrowed. 5. The system’s process of updating information is time-consuming. 6. The system’s catalogue process is manually maintained. 1. 3 Objectives of the Study This study was made in order to achieve the following points: 1. 3. 1 General Objectives To develop an efficient and user-friendly library system for San Roque Catholic School that will ease the process of the system. 1. 3. 2 Specific Objectives 1. To create a system that will preview the content of each book; 2. To build a system that has an easy to use-all in-one interface; 3. To make a multiple user-account system. 4. A system that will preview the cover of each book. 5. System that will be able to update the information on each book. 6. To develop a system that is cataloguing ready. 1. 4 Significance of the Study The system is being fulfilled in order to benefit the following: †¢ School Administrator The system will ease the inventory of the library system. Determining the number of available copies and the number of copies needed for each book won’t take much time. †¢ School Librarian The system will avoid long lines when students borrow books at the same time thus, it will make the job much easier and more time constraint. It won’t be a hassle tracking down penalty fees anymore. †¢ Students The system will make it easier to browse books without checking every shelf for its availability. †¢ Future Proponents The system will serve as guide for future use and also a practice for aspiring programmers. 1. 5 Scope and Limitations The scope of this study: The Study is conducted at San Roque Catholic School. Therefore, we’ve managed to produce a few scopes on the system. †¢ The User Interface We will be focusing more on making the system more user-friendly. †¢ Borrowing System. The system allows viewing of borrowers and books for the librarian. The system is able to retrieve the books borrowed date and return date. †¢ Catalogues The catalogues are printable whether it is single or multiple. †¢ Preview of Book Cover The book cover is able to be previewed using the library system without needing to search for the book in the shelves of the library. †¢ Overdue penalties The system is able to track down the number of days the book is overdue and as well as the total penalty to be paid by the borrower. The limitations of this study: The system that we’ve created has few limitations, issues like lack of time, Error Fixings and Maintenance. †¢ Weekly Reports This feature has been implemented but it is not yet accurate. †¢ Library Cards This feature cannot be implemented in our system due to technical difficulties. Methodology The researchers decided to use the prototyping paradigm. Prototype systems development methodology in which a prototype is built, tested, and then reworked as necessary until an acceptable prototype is finally achieved from which the complete system or product can now be developed. This paradigm is very helpful to the group because the system can be adjusted frequently even the small details to make the system effective to the library. System Development Life Cycle Planning Phase In this Phase, is to plan and achieve the client’s perspective on their said features, think all possible problems that may appear while building the system and how to create that system in efficient way and not time consuming. Analysis Phase Phase that focus on all errors or problems can be acquired, how to resolve it and meet all the expectations of the clients. Design Phase In this Phase, To create a system that is very easy to use, have a well organized codes, have a user friendly GUI and meets all requirements needed to impress the clients. Implementation Phase Where the system is finished, all data are converted, resolve all possible errors during on designing and until its ready to install on their computer. Its smooth and efficiency makes the system great on quick processes. Maintenance Phase This phase checks and maintains the system for unspecified or unexpected errors that have been occurred after using it. The system can also be updated, giving it a better performance on each task.

Disciplinary Issues and Violence in School System Essay

Disciplinary Issues and Violence in School System Throughout the nations, disciplinary issue and violence in the school systems has been a controversial matter. These issues have been an argumentum dated back before our time. Since then, schools worldwide especially public schools has implemented different types of tragedies to discipline students and reduced the violence in the schools. These problems have placed students, teachers, administrators, and staffs in constant fear, and they have retarded the educational process, undermining a generation of students, therefore school violence is not a new phenomenon (Adams 2000). Discipline is, after all, a crucial aspect of education and a central component of teachers’ work. As educators, families, and community members turned to the district to intervene in matters of discipline, they also turned to other external agencies-including professional associations, state house, and even the courts- to intervene in other realms of education that had traditionally been controlled at the school site (Kafka 2008). The discipline and punishment of students has become particular harsh- a trend that mirrors the mounting punitiveness in the criminal justice system (Welch and Payne 2010). Sources Adams, A. T. (2000). The status of school discipline and violence. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science-School Violence, 567, 140-156. Retrieved from http://www. jstor. org/stable/1049499 Kafka, J. (2008). â€Å"sitting on a tinderbox†: Racial conflict, teacher discretion, and the centralization of disciplinary authority. American Journal of Education, 114(3), 247-270. Retrieved from http://www. jstor. org/stable/10. 1086/529501 Welch, K. , & Payne, A. A. (2010). Racial threat and punitive school discipline. Social Problems, 57(1), 25-48. Retrieved from http://www. jstor. org/stable/10. 525/sp. 2010. 57. 1. 25 Throughout the nations, disciplinary issue and violence in the school systems has been a controversial matter. These issues have been an argumentum dated back before our time. Since then, schools worldwide especially public schools has implemented different types of tragedies to discipline students and reduced the violence in the schools. Th ese problems have placed students, teachers, administrators, and staffs in constant fear, and they have retarded the educational process, undermining a generation of students, therefore school violence is not a new phenomenon (Adams 2000). School violence and discipline are not the same concept, but they are related (Adams 2000). Adams (2000) mentions some of the practices for discipline in school such as suspension and expulsion, in school suspension (ISS), and zero tolerance. He also brought up an interesting factor about students who are on medication (s) for different type’s disorders such as ADD or ADHD sometimes used an excuse for the misbehaving (Adams 2000). Discipline is, after all, a crucial aspect of education and a central component of teachers’ work. As educators, families, and community members turned to the district to intervene in matters of discipline, they also turned to other external agencies-including professional associations, state house, and even the courts- to intervene in other realms of education that had traditionally been controlled at the school site (Kafka 2008). Therefore, throughout most of the American history, students discipline was largely decentralized: local educators were responsible for determining appropriate classroom behavior and for meting out punishments as they saw fit (Kafka 2008). Today, teachers and the public remain ambivalent about the location of disciplinary authority (Kafka 2008). There are researches and studies that have been done to see if tragedies such as some listed were effective or ineffective since implemented. Research has shown that certain student socio-demographic qualities are related to harsh school discipline. Statistic indicate that poorer students are, in fact, more likely to be targeted by harsh school practices, while wealthier students more often receive mild to moderate consequences (Welch and Payne 2010). In addition, various school characteristics have found to affect the social control of students. Discipline policies are more likely to be effectively improve student behavior and accountability in school with strong principal leadership which consists support of teachers, consistent supervision and the use of feedback, high visibility and presence, and effective planning and problem- solving (Welch and Payne 2010). Another thing that research found is racial status- consistently related to student punitiveness, with inority students receiving harsher treatment more often than white students. This is general given more frequently and more punitive for less serious offenses such as suspensions, expulsions, even corporal punishment, and zero tolerance violations (Welch and Payne 2010). Putting it all together, the effects of student race on discipline is that it is actually socioeconomic status that influences school punitiveness (Welch and Payne 2010). Discipline is both an antecedent and an expected outcome or predictable behavior. Discipline is sometimes used to measure violence. School violence and discipline are mutually constitutive of the problem and need to be considered in relationship to each other (Adams 2000). There are pros and cons on some of the tragedies that have been implemented for disciplinary in the school exclusions such as suspension and expulsion. The pros for exclusion are 1) it is and an effective way for administrators to handle large numbers of disruptive youths 2) it offered protection to a larger student body and 3) provide administrators with a sense of control over the uncontrollable (Adams 2000). In the other hand, there are negative sides to this exclusion 1) students who are routinely disciplined by being suspended are more likely to drop out of school which in turn causes derailment 2) it also sends the wrong message- students loses respect for authority figures when excluded from school for truancy and 3) it has the potential to predispose unsupervised children to become individuals who are asocial, with the likelihood of increased delinquency as well- it simply displaces the offending student from the school to the street (Adams 2000). Furthermore, in-school suspension better known as ISS has it positive and negative outcome as well. ISS is use in substituting for exclusions for 1) teachers, administrators, and school districts didn’t have to deal with lengthy hearings and counsel from school-appointed attorneys 2) the programs kept disruptive students on campus- the same student would be less likely to pose an immediate threat to their local communities and would be under supervision and 3) it kept disruptive student from coming into contact with students who were likely to engage in asocial behaviors during school operating hours (Adams 2000). Furthermore, ISS can be seen as 1) a holding ground for incorrigible students who lack motivation and who are generally inspired by institutional schooling- typically supervised by paraprofessional who lack training to work effectively with at-risk students and 2) the program lacks resources including pedagogic equipment, manipulative, and other learning devices-however there are certified teacher that masterfully run the program and facilitate the learning (Adams 2000). Many students who are placed in ISS programs are there because their teachers lack appropriate mediation skills – as a result, students often find themselves skidding into ISS because of the inability of their teachers to cope with students from diverse social background that often are at variance with the background of middle-class teachers (Adams 2000). Another policy that’s implemented is zero tolerance- it has the approach taken off in response to more violent nature of school disruption. It too has its advantages and disadvantages in the school system- it has two advantages as follows 1) detection aspect- which involved surveillance throughout the school except in the restroom, dressing room and classroom. It’s to help mobilize school security and have the proactive approach and 2) punishment- a return version of exclusion, when proof is there to expelled student with certain offenses (Adams 2000). On the opposite side, zero tolerance has it disadvantages 1) Students who are kicked out of school are the one that need education the most and mostly are from low income families and are at risk 2) tends to violates students’ right to due process 3) it absolved schools of their responsibility to provide nurturing, caring, and mentoring relations that prepare students for democratic society 4) it also has the unintended consequence of being racist- it disproportionately punishes minority students 5) often remove students from the educational process for minor offenses such as being tardy, class cutting, and insubordination and 6) it has no appreciable effects on reducing violence in the school (Adams 2000). With that all put together, some studies have found that the relation between school violence and discipline is more complex than they think. By constructing orderly school environments with reduced level of violence will help provide alternatives conflict resolution and pe aceful school movements (Adams 2000).

Daoism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Daoism - Essay Example This may be because, since all other religious beliefs are exotic, Taoism is the only religion that the China inhabitants believe to be indigenous. Therefore, this document critically analyzes Daoism, its theoretical, practical, and social approach one of the world religions. Daoism (also called Taoism) is a religious belief whose origin comes from the Chinese traditions. Joachim Wach explained that there are three ways in which a belief qualifies to be named a religion (Kirkland 165). A religion must have its theoretical aspect. This means that it ought to have various verbal beliefs, to which the followers strongly adhere. Daoism accentuates veneration of the ancestral spirits and immortality of some beings in their religion. Taoism believes on the freedom of humanity from conformist limitations. Moreover, Taoism obtains its teaching from Lao-tze, an ancient philosopher who the followers deem to have established the first Taoism temple. However, the Taoism followers commonly consid er the history about Lao-tze as legendary; and they still keep up with his teachings from the earlier writings. Scholars believe Taoism to be mythological. In this sense, some critics claim their belief about immortality to be mythical. In addition, it highlights the story of a certain prince, who practiced Taoism in a deserted mountain until he became a supernatural and consequently an immortal being (Kirkland 166). The Taoists believe that a certain man, believed to be the true man, will come to the world in the end, and end chaos, bringing peace to the world. Additionally, the Taoists believe that Tao (the way) is the main guiding rule of their values and mannerisms (Ede 21). Moreover, Taoists believe in a hierarchy of gods and eternals. There is also the practical aspect of Daoism. Taoist believers practice various rituals. Taoists believe in achieving immortality through practicing the Tao values, both within and outside the bodily being. The Taos internal practices entail phys ical Tao exercises, which include breathing, intense meditation, and refinement of the inner elixir. Besides, the central objective of these activities is to improve oneself, spiritually and bodily. Tao also teaches external practices that involve being responsible in exemplary actions such as helping one another. Tao believers must strive to achieve these values by earnestly practicing both the internal and external activities, since they believe that the reward is to acquire the immortal nature. Additionally, the Tao followers practice martial arts, most commonly known as Kung fu (Ede 22). Besides, the Tao followers also have their own scriptures that they read and follow. This manuscript comes in diverse components. They refer these components as the Canon or the Daozang. They are arranged in the order of age, the earliest being the Tang Dynasty. The succeeding ones include versions compiled during the dynasties of Song, Jin, Yuan, and Ming. There are two distinct Tao sects. The two sects are the Zhengyi and the Quanzhen, with the Zhengyi being the most popular within the Chinese communities. However, these sects are similar in their fundamental Tao beliefs. They only have slight disparities in their norms and regulations. The Quanzhens are stricter in their regulations as opposed to their Zhengyi counterparts, since they practice a strict vegetarian diet and are celibate, spending their entire lives in the

Threats And Vulnerabilities Analysis Coursework

Threats And Vulnerabilities Analysis - Coursework Example As the result, it is upon the institution to implement policies that would serve best in physical, technical and administrative safeguards of the system. The following section lists a number of policy statements that give the narration of the information security controls that could be used by the institution to implement recommendations for protection. The recommendations focus on major areas of the institutional operations including Institutional Information, Information Systems, Computerized Devices, And Infrastructure Technology. The policy statements are applicable across all departments within the organization and they are categorized in terms of Information Security Plan, Physical Controls, Monitoring Controls, Technical Security and Access Controls, General Operational Controls, and Account and Identity Management Controls.Policy statements Information Security plan The top management is responsible for documenting and overseeing implementation of an Information Security plan . This would help in securing the system and protection of data within the system, thereby thwarting intentions by any intruders. The Plan includes the following: 1.The Security Plan shall delegate and plan responsibilities across the organization to the appropriate people. For instance, this shall cut across system owners and system operators. This way, there will be proper engineering of the system’s operation thereby avoiding vulnerabilities such as poor administrative procedures.

Personal Investment in the UK is it Science of Matter of Good Fortune Essay

Personal Investment in the UK is it Science of Matter of Good Fortune - Essay Example More evidently the increase in the number of retirement people in the region has led to the fall in the demand for saving and investment in the region. Again the level of investment practices carried out by the people gains a larger relation to the insurance and pension related schemes where the people invest out of a precautionary motive. Different economic changes like crash in the housing market also tends to lower the practice of personal investment in the region (Banks and Tanner, 1999, p.6-9). Different Types of Investment in United Kingdom In United Kingdom people tend to invest or conduct their personal savings through the use of different tools like investing in mortgage funds, investing on pension or other insurance related funds, depositing money in banks or in securities issued by different financial institutions. Further people also tend to invest their money in many asset related or commercial funds apart from investing in agricultural and national savings deposits. The major part of the personal savings owes to funds related to pension and insurance other than mortgage or housing properties (Banks and Blundell, 1994, p.67). Types of Personal Investment in United Kingdom and Popularity of Use In United Kingdom the aspect of personal savings and investment gains attention in regards to categories like pension funds and other insurance related sectors. However other than the pension and insurance related funds the personal investment activities of the people also centre on deposits made in banks. Investment is again made by the people in funds created for the housing societies. Moreover other than the listed areas the people also tend to invest largely in sectors such as shares and dividend mainly equity based issued by registered companies operating in United Kingdom. In other types of personal investment practices the people also tend to invest largely in different types of asset funds bearing interest gains and in other savings fund issued by the national government. The six different areas into which the people residing in United Kingdom tend to invest their personal finances also contain of security deposits and other unit trust schemes (Banks and Blundell, 1994, p.69). Out of the six listed avenues available to the people in United Kingdom to conduct their personal savings it is found that the sector of pension funds and insurance schemes gains the highest amount of attraction. The main reason inferred for the growing attention of the people to invest along the pension and insurance related funds is to gain a large amount of tax benefits. The people avail the exemption advantages from tax charges in regards to their investment in pension and insurance funds. Moreover in regards to the insurance sector the people also avail benefits linked to the market where the insurance schemes chosen for investing by the people stand to be market linked. Thus the people through the

Legal Regulation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Legal Regulation - Essay Example In this manner, regulation can be perceived as implementation of policy statements that aim to bring sanity in business by ensuring that there is neutral for all players to benefit (Scherer, 1996).   The State has always regulated companies because it is aware that the safety of the public and their welfare is its priority. If the activities and behaviors of companies or industries are not regulated and reviewed, they can have harmful effects to human health, community structure and financial well being of people. It is plausible to argue that these regulations are put in place with the intention of protecting those people who have set their businesses correctly on the market via acquiring working licenses, inspections and permits that allows them to operate, therefore, the State tries to weed out criminal or undesirable activities that undercut honest industries. The State has always engaged in regulating businesses by stating that efficient and effective business regulation is ne cessary since it propagates situation where the total benefits of some people do not exceed the total costs of others. Government regulations are important since they aim to achieve various objectives. If businesses are not regulated, then there will high standards of malpractices whereby the consumer will be exploited and deprived of his rights. Because of market failures, it is necessary for the government to control and regulate the behavior of firms since market failures can easily lead to market monopoly whereby the market.

Does Playing Violent Video Games Increase Aggressiveness Research Paper

Does Playing Violent Video Games Increase Aggressiveness - Research Paper Example Principal Investigator (PI) Information Name Maricel Walsh Relationship to NSU: Faculty Staff Student x Home Mailing Address (for students) 15420 SW 74th circle ct City/State/Zip: Miami, Fl 33193 Office Phone: 786 873 0511 Home Phone (for students): 305 752 7884 NSU Center/College/Dept: Farguhar College Behavioral Science Dept. NSU Email Address: wmaricel@nova.edu Fax: Co-Investigators (Co-I) Information (including faculty advisers): Co-Investigator 1 Co-Investigator 2 Co-Investigator 3 Name Todd Coy, Ph.D. Address Dept of Social and Behavioral Science Contract Phone Number Email Address Crandy@nova.edu Have the PI, Co-I, and any research assistants completed the NSU-designated human subject's research training (CITI Program) Yes X No If you answered yes, please include a copy of your training certificate. If you answered no to this question, please note that no IRB action may take place until proof of completion of training is provided. II. Funding Information Will this research be funded Yes No X If yes was indicated, please provide the following information: A. Source of Funding N/A_______________________________________________ B. Project Title (if different from above) ________________________________ C. Principal Investigator (if different from above) __________________________ D. Type of Application: Grant____ Subcontract_____ Contract_____ Fellowship______ E. Date of Submission ______________________ F. Grant Amount ___________________ Do any investigators have a significant financial interest (as defined by NSU policy: http://www.nova.edu/ogc/forms/ogc9906.pdf) in relation to this study Yes No X If you answered yes, please be sure to include within the...Please note, ONLY ONE copy of all research instruments (tests instruments, interview protocols, etc.) must be submitted. The completed package must be received by the OGC by the last business day of the month prior to the next scheduled IRB meeting. The IRB web site should be consulted for the meeting dates of the IRB. Incomplete forms will delay review by the IRB. For either type of review the pages of the packet must be numbered sequentially. For further information, refer to the Policy and Procedure Manual for Research with Human Subjects. If you answered yes, please include a copy of your training certificate. If you answered no to this question, please note that no IRB action may take place until proof of completion of training is provided. If you answered yes, please be sure to include within the description section of all applicable consent forms the following statement: "The principal investigator a

Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 8

Culture - Essay Example Organisational culture is defined as those shared behaviour patterns that individuals demonstrate consistently within a firm as they undertake their respective roles (Mullins 2011: 88). For example, holding weekly staff meeting can be a culture that distinguishes organisation A from organisation B. Values, norms as well as traditions are also shared in companies that have identifiable cultures. It is worth noting that the strength or intensity of the culture may vary from one organisation to another. This paper will seek to address comprehensively the concept of organisational culture and determine some of the advantages strong organisational cultures bring to companies. The essay begins by tracing the development of organisational culture before embarking on evaluating the many benefits of strong cultures within the firm. A question that may perplex someone is how the culture is set and absorbed by members within the organisation. As a matter of fact, the deepest root off organisational culture is extended to the founders. It is the company’s vision and mission as well as the core values that they pioneer the organisation with that forms the foundation of the firm’s culture. Initially the founders identify some of the values that should be fundamental to the operations of the organisation they form. They then hire and recruit person (managers) who share the same values and perceptions with them. In cases where the founders do not find exactly people who do not have the same perception, they may convince and assimilate them into accepting their culture. Through their actions and the behaviour they exhibit, the pioneers indoctrinate the worker to accept their values and perceptions. For example, if the organisation is founded on strong Christian principles, the behaviours and expressions of the founders that portray Christian values will be transferred to and absorbed by the workers (Robbins & Judge

Public Finance - Tax System Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Public Finance - Tax System - Essay Example While a tax is imposed it somehow hampers the free market operation and hence tax is subject to some social cost. Thats why an efficient taxation should minimize the social cost or welfare loss. On the other hand it should target to encourage the saving and investment in the society. According to Adam Smith, the tax structure should be fair and clear enough i.e. everyone should have the information regarding the tax that is paid and the administration of the tax system should be clear and easy. While a tax is introduced the following facts should be kept into mind. 1. The tax system should be economically efficient i.e. the benefit of taxation should exceed the social cost of it. The benefit includes the correcting effect, allocation of resources and insurance of equality. 2. The tax system should possess administrative efficiency. It should be easy to monitor and maintain and the system should be simple enough so that the administrative cost and the compliance cost are minimum. 4. There should be close coordination between the political decision makers and the tax system. It implies that tax payers should have the perfect knowledge about the mode of operation of the taxation system and the political decision makers should be well aware of the preference of the people so that the change in decision must be the resemblance of the choice of the majority of the tax payers which is a basic feature of a democratic system. All the aforesaid features are closely related to a fair distribution and the economic benefit of the taxes. Beneficial tax normally refers to the optimal taxation. The optimal tax theory is based on the equality and the economy of collection of taxation. While any government frames a taxation policy it should keep into mind that the taxation should be socially justified and have minimum impacts on the economic decisions. A wide

Difference between entering the markets U.S.A and Austria based on Essay

Difference between entering the markets U.S.A and Austria based on hofstedes cultural dimensions - Essay Example The first category, that is; power distance measures less powerful members of asocial set up to the extent of acceptance of inequality. High gets in power distance indicate that a person workers or employers will not be granted advancement according to merit but rather what social set up has dictated for them. In individualism –collectivism high gets reflect strong person’s independence and a responsibility to one’s own actions.in Hofstede’s cultural dimensions; Masculinity-femininity affected very many societies. The values of women were relatively the same; meaning levels of modesty, caring, and sensitivity were relatively similar. Theworld’saverage in this category is 50. An average score implies that there is a balance between feminine and masculine qualities in a country. When it comes to uncertainty avoidance index, the world’s average in this category is 64. Rules and regulations in terms of intricate planning would be more prominent i n higher scoring countries. In his final cultural category; that is long term orientation Hofstede examines the preference for short term and long term goals in different countries. High scorers in this categoryindicate their culture is more persistent and thrifty (Ball et al., 2005). ... ed as the extent to which the less powerful members of the social set upor organizations within a state expect and accept that power is distributed unequally. The fact that disparities exist within a social set up is accepted by the subjects as well as by their leaders. The U.S.A has a low score on this category (40) which implies that the American liberty and justice for all has been underscored. This can be proved by the focus on equal rights in most aspects of the American social set up and government. Hierarchy is established for convenience for all American organizations just as superiors are always accessible and employers rely in a personworkers and teams for their experience. Both employers and workers in the American social set up expect to be consulted and information is shared frequently.at the same time, their communication is straight, casual and participative. Austria on the other hand gets as low as 11 in this category. This means that Austria is characterized by the f ollowing; there is a lot of independence, there is hierarchy for convenience purposesonly, persons have equal rights, superiors are easily accessible, leaders are viewed as coaches, their management facilitates and empowers workers. Power is not centralized and employers count on the participation and experience of their team members. Workers also expect to be consulted. Control on workers is unlikely and attitude towards employers are informal and on first name basis. Communication is express and participative (Hofstede, 2003). Individualism The most important issue addressed by this category is the degree of interdependence a social set up maintains among its members. This includesself-image defined in terms of â€Å"I† or â€Å"we† .individuals in a individualistic societies are

Proposal Argument Essay Example for Free

Proposal Argument Essay I believe it is an agreed principle by everyone that the importance of sports is in the life of a student is invaluable. Sports play a significant role of first about every individual solely country (Campbell; 4). In one way or the other people are involved in a game or some sort, Whether he/she is watching or playing or by just knowing an individual who plays or watches. Sports often come in various sizes. Cricket is a group sport with individuals playing various roles at the same time play is going on. The matches are played in an open field usually oval or circular in shape. Cricket is an international sport with recognition all over the world. It has a long history since the 19th century and has often been associated with strong passion, that has seen it become more popular the world over. With this reputation that this game has earned all over the years that it has been in existence, The College would be glad to be associated with this game and be part of the effort to develop the games in our society to enable all Americans to compete at the international stage.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Austin community college (ACC) wants to develop an exciting and innovative initiative to help advance the careers of students as professional players and to motivate them. The students through the department of sports and the college, proposes to start an established cricket team that will provide training service to the student. This proposal requests $ 800,000.00 from the community and other well wishers through a fund drive to help meet the costs of buying a piece of land that would be used as both training and play ground by the student. Part of this money will also be used towards the purchase of facilities for training and playing like bats and gears among others and for amenities for people involved in the game of cricket at the college. We as the members of the cricket club of Austin community college anticipate that the grants that will be received from the fundraising will be an essential and a basis part of our program. It will also be crucial as it will provide an essential training and educational component to the project thereby allowing us to both extend our effort in academic as well as that of sports and at the same time lowering the costs the college would incur and thus providing the college with an opportunity to meet the needs of its student and as such serve the large society.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The program (crickets) which the school envisions is multi-faceted comprehensive as well as innovative. The college community has a tremendous requirement for additional sports. The ACC and its board have already identified an ideal site where the training and play ground can be set up The cost breakdown of the proposed site and facilities is as follows;   Play ground- $ 500,000 Facilities- $ 260,000 Administrative -$ 100,000 The cost estimates of this program have been based on a comprehensive program designed which took in to consideration all of the criteria players coaches, trainers playing facilities as well as other aspects of the cricket game.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Like in every game the facilities that are budgeted for are essential, and without which there will be no much development of the sport. The sport requires a large space from which both the training and playing can take place. However the space within the college is not adequate to accommodate the pitch. That is why the college is soliciting for funds to purchase a piece of land that is about 200 meters from the college. The field is spacious enough, a key to the project. It is the only open field with enough capacity to cater for the game otherwise there is no other such space within the vicinity which can cost less or specious for the program.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The essence of sports is either money or fun like in every sport the game of cricket has both professionals and amateurs (http://www.socialstudiesforkids.com/article/sports/sport1.htm.). The school would be serving the role of facilitator and developer of the talents of the amateurs and molding them in to professionals for the betterment of the society. In most cases sports have been known to bring cohesion and together in the community and the larger society. For instance the game of cricket is internationally recognized for the role it has played to bring some kind of peace and tranquility between India and Pakistan. This can translate to bring the students as well as community at Austin community, college. The fans which will be largely the student from the college will be inspired by a good team to come out on large numbers to support their team. I believe that the net effect of this support would be that of the school community working together in harmony. Nevertheless this can only be achieved if the school is able to purchase the parcel of land in question and buy the needs facilities so as to be able to develop the game.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As has been witnessed in other sports the game is able to feature every part of social studies through active involvement in one way or another and which will be of great benefit to all parties involved including the entire society (http://www.socialstudiesforkids.com/article/sports/sport1.htm.). For instance, the bowlers must have ample space to run as well as the cricket keepers which will enable them to compete at the highest level of competition and at the same time develop and nurture talents that will not only turn professional but successful sports men/women who will do our country proud and raise the standard of the game in the country.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   For the last 3 and half years the students have been using the soccer pitch which has hampered their progress and at the same time interrupted the training program of the soccer players. Currently there about 30 students who are actively involved in the sport but due to lack of enough facilities and an ample space to train in any have not been able to join the team. This is so because there are many students with the interest to join the game but who can not be accommodated due to the current state of affairs. A large number of students are not actively involved in sports but whom cricket would provide with the opportunity to be actively participating and develop.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   On behalf the entire organizing committee for the funds drive and the sports department I do believe that your contribution would go a long way in achieving this goal. It is also sure way for everyone through their contributions to be part of the history to be made. Thanks in anticipation. Reference: James Campbell. Excursions, adventure, and field sports in Ceylon Asian education service, 1999 Non profit guides http://www.npguides.org/guide/grand2.htm Social studies for kids; sports as social studies http://www.socialstudiesforkids.com/article/sports/sport1.htm.

Analysis of Richard Wrights Black Boy

Analysis of Richard Wrights Black Boy Black Boy Essay In Richard Wright’s autobiography of Black Boy, Richard is determined to leave his family to move to the north because they do not provide the necessities for him to be successful. Richard’s bold and stubborn personality negates him success. This runs parallel to the abuse and manipulation that Richard receives that limits his relationships with others around him. Wright also shows how reading frees a soul suffering from discrimination. The US constitution states that â€Å"All men are created equal,† but in the Jim Crow law era, blacks were always looked down upon. Jim Crow promoted segregation and dehumanization amongst blacks and whites, creating the â€Å"wall† that separates whites from blacks. Racial prejudice, hate and discrimination were everywhere; blacks could be punished in any manor, from being arrested and getting a beating, to being slain based on a white person’s judgment on the action perform by the black individual. Throughout the n ovel we can see Richard’s alienation from the white community as well as the black community. Richard grew up in the south bound by rules and regulations formed by the whites. Secluded within their own confines of living, their struggle to survive in such a harsh environment seemed infinite and hopeless. Richard had to take charge when his mother falls ill and must provide for her and the family; disregarding this own health and focusing on keeping up with the rent and bills that needed to be paid. Richard’s father deserted his family leaving him and his mother to be on their own. Nathan, Richard’s dad was a peasant, and a share cropper. He did what the whites commanded him to do, follow the rules with no desire to succeed or progress in life, and repeat each and every demeaning and menial task day by day just to get by. This is the kind of society which ‘trained’ Nathan to be what the whites forced him to be, a dull and dumb individual with no sense of perception of what’s actually going on around him. Being counted as a subspecies, Richardà ¢â‚¬â„¢s father was conditioned to have no sense of hope, his entire life was based upon one thing, and that is falling in line with all other blacks and follows through with all the commands given by the white with no questions asked. This worked on every level imaginable, using sheer force and fear to tear down any sense of hope or positive thinking which blacks had. Just the thought of blacks surpassing a white individual was unthinkable. Why is this? It’s because it was deemed that way, it was how the society worked at that time. No one could question or challenge what whites could or can’t do, all of their thoughts are final. The ideas of being superior amongst the blacks were socially acceptable. And this included dehumanizing and cruel treatments. Richard wasn’t like the other kids that were in the black society. He was more free willed and ambitious. Richard was an independent individual from the start; not getting attached to anyone or in need of assistance of any sort. Richard was fond of education and learning. His quest for knowledge seemed, in the other black people’s eyes as a waste of time and energy, deemed to be helpful. But in some cases, Richard’s knowledge gets him in trouble, even worse getting hurt. An example from the book, is when Richard has to go to the store and buy groceries, but gets robbed numerous times by a gang of boys. The final time that Richard failed to get the groceries his mother told him, â€Å"Don’t come in here†¦You just stay right where you are, I’m going to teach your this night to stand up and fight for yourself†¦Don’t you come into this house until you’ve gotten those groceries.†(pg.24-25). One of Richard’s top quali ties was taught that night by his mother was perseverance. On the other hand we see the opposite, Shorty. Basically this amplifies my point of doing whatever possible to survive in this dreadful environment. He gets kicked in the gut just to get a quarter. My ass is tough and quarters is scarce.(end of ch12) At what point does a person go to violate self-ethics and morals, and go through with it just to survive. How far are you willing to go until you break? There is a delicate bond between the white people and white people, as humans we have limitations on how much we can handle mentally and physically. We can see from this example that Shorty is willing to degrade himself in order to get a quarter per kick. Shorty and Richard go off on a tangent about how to avoid being dehumanized and do something else. Richard offers to help him but Shorty’s hard headedness prevents him from to take heed the information given by Richard. But in Shorty’s remarks, he states that he is lazy to do anything and won’t change his ways of ho w he earns money. The readers recognize that Shorty has accepted the fact of being caught in the white power web of inferiority; he sees that there is no way out of this terrible situation. He went to school for half of his learning, and the half he was self-taught; by reading little bits and pieces he manages to learn quite a bit. Having knowledge and education grants Richard to be ahead of all the other black people. Wanting to be a writer, Wright pursues his dreams of moving North and writing novels. He takes the challenge by getting any job he can to raise money for himself to move to the north once and for all, and freeing himself from the clutches of racial prejudice and white rule. His ability to persevere also guided Richard toward his prosperity. Richard was a fighter and no matter what obstacle he faced, he manages to knock it down and march forth with his duties. Richard was always rebellious, from when he was really young to young adulthood. For example, when the principal at Richard’s school had asked him to give a speech to the audience of whites and blacks, Richard refused to read the principal’s pre-written speech. Just by reading the principal’s speech he was relieved at the same overly stressed out. He had the will and courage that other black individuals lacked to commence forth with this own speech. Richard was willing to leave school without a diploma just because of this unjust action. The whites knew that Richard was different; they knew that he challenged the â€Å"system† and he wasn’t afraid like the rest of the black people. The readers can sense fear coming from the whites, due to Richard’s attitude towards the whites and the boundaries that surround him. The white’s try to cover up their fear and pushing racism by being cruel and demeaning towards the entire black population. We can see in the scene where Richard gets a new job at the optical place, and his co-workers mistreat him just because the boss is kind to Richard. Later Richard leaves the job knowing that his co-workers would ‘kill’ him if told the boss what happed to him. The hostility portrayed by his co-workers was so great that Richard couldn’t handle it anymore, and was forced to leave his job. All of these events mold Richard into the hardy character he is known for. Wright’s intellect was unmatched by the blacks, and well as his rebellious features and conduct. These were a few reasons that he was able to overcome his background of being black individual, and becoming a successful writer. Based on the fact that he was smart and independent, and his perseverance guided him to reach this status, to which all blacks should uphold to. By reading Black Boy it becomes very clear to the reader how life as a black minority is very difficult. We can recognize all the struggles they faced and how Richard challenged and managed to surpass what no blacks ever did.

Coal Fired Power Plants Engineering Essay

Coal Fired Power Plants Engineering Essay In this chapter is going to be presented the function and some other aspects of a coal-fired power plant. First of all as coal-fired power plant it can be defined that plant which uses coal as fuel so as to produce electricity. Coal is a fossil fuel which is created through the compression of peat as it is buried under the earth. There are two general types of coal, the black coal and the brown coal. The typical mass of a black coal consists of [1]: 88% carbon 5% hydrogen 5% oxygen 1% nitrogen 1% sulphur In this chapter it will be analyzed the thermodynamic principle on which the operation of a power plant is based and some other auxiliary functions which are significant for the proper operation. Furthermore it is presented the emissions of a coal-fired power plant and some efficient ways so as to be constraint. 3.1 Historical evolution of coal-fired power plants The ever increasing demand for energy made it compelling the deployment of a technology which would have the ability to generate electricity in an effective and affordable way. On that basis the development of coal-fired power plants blocks started during 1950s when the first plants had a capacity of 60 MW and nowadays the capacity has raised up to 1010 MW in Europe and 1300 MW in the USA [2]. According to IEA [3] in year 2010 the total installed capacity of coal-fired power plants was more than 1600 GW and it is expected to be installed more 1000 GW until 2035. In Fig.1 it is presented the total capacity of coal-fired power plants installed through the years from 1920 up to 2004 worldwide an more specifically in countries such as the USA, China, Germany etc. where power demand is in very high levels. From the graph in Fig.1 it is obvious that the total capacity of the coal-fired power stations follows an upward trend. This enormous growth in coal-fired power plants can be explained on the grounds that coal is a very cheap fuel and in abundance in many places around the world as many studies have shown [4-7]. Fig. 1: Cumulative pulverized-coal plant installation between 1920 and 2004. Source: [8] 3.2 Clausius-Rankine Cycle In this section it is presented the basic principle on which it is based the operation of a coal fired power plant. This principle is known from thermodynamics as the Clausius-Rankine cycle or steam cycle. In Fig.2 it is shown the four steps that conclude the steam cycle and the basic devices which are necessary so as to be implemented. More specific the working media is water and steam and in the first step (1-2) the pump increases waters pressure and therefore it is consumed work by the pump. Afterwards in the next step (2-3) input heat Qin from the combustion of pulverised coal is transferred to water which is evaporated and converted into steam, and steam is heated further. In the step (3-4) the steam is expanded from a high pressure turbine to a low pressure one and in this way mechanical work is generated in the shaft of turbines. Ultimately in the final step (4-1) the output heat is released and the steam is condensed into water again. Thus the work of the turbine gained is gi ven by (1). WT = Qin Qout WP (1) Fig.2: Steam cycle. Source: [2]. 3.3 Operation of coal-fired power plants In Section 3.2 it was presented the theory which applies in the function of a coal-fired power station. In this section it is described in more detail all stages of a coal-fired power plant and the way in which the basic principle is implemented in practice. In Fig.3 it is shown a schematic of a typical coal fired power plant and all devices that make it up. The first step of the function of a coal-fired power plant is the supply of coal. This procedure is made through a conveyor belt which transfers coal to the coal hopper. After that coal is pulverized so as to become fine powder. In pulverized fuel boilers coal is pulverized into very small particles about 100 microns and this type of boilers is the most common [1]. The next step is coal to be burnt. Thus a preheated air stream drive the pulverized coal to the burners of the boiler, where fuel is burnt in short time and in this way it is produced a flue gas. This flue gas contains the chemical energy of the fuel (i.e. the coal) which has been converted into thermal energy. A portion of this thermal energy is transferred through radiation and convection into the water which circulates in a network of pipes inside the boiler and therefore the water is evaporated and converted into steam. This steam has very high temperature and pressure at this stage of the procedure (about 25 MPa and 5 00-600 oC [1]) and it is expanded from the high pressure turbine to the low pressure one. More specifically first the high pressure steam drives the high pressure turbine and the exhaust steam returns back to the furnace where it is reheated and drives the intermediate and low pressure turbines. This set of turbines rotates a shaft which is connected with a generator and in this way it is produced electricity. The exhaust steam which released by the low pressure turbine is cooled in the condenser and becomes water again. This water is pumped back to the network of pipes insight the boiler and thus the same procedure is iterated. In the condenser cold water is circulated into tubes, which usually comes from a river or sea. Thus the heat of the exhaust steam is exchanged with this cooling water, which temperature is raised after that and respectively the steam is liquefied and becomes water again. If the plant is near the sea or river, then the cooling water flows back in the sea or river with a higher temperature which usually is 10-20 oC up [1]. Otherwise the warm cooling water should be processed through a cooling tower in order to be cooled. The cooling tower is a system, where the warm cooling water is driven in a higher altitude in the top of the tower and then it flows down, being exposed to an upward stream of air and in this way it is cooled. As far as the flue gases are concerned, they are passed through different cleaning stages before discharged into the atmosphere through the stack. In more specific, the first step is to pass them through a device where the biggest amount of the dust particles is collected. This device is called precipitator. There are three kinds of precipitators which are bag filters, cyclone filters and electrostatic filters [1]. Next they pass into the desulphurisation unit so as the sulphur dioxide (SO2) to be removed. C:UsersGeorgeDesktopMSc SESCarbon capture transportAssignment 1ststeam-power-plant.png Fig.3: Schematic of a coal-fired power plant. Source: [9]. 3.4 Efficiency of coal-fired power plants The efficiency of power plant is a very significant factor, on the grounds that by improving it is needed less fuel to be consumed and CO2 emissions can be constrained. Of course it is not possible for every plant to have the same efficiency and there are many factors which can influence it [10]. In Fig.4 is presented in a flow chart which indicates the transformation of energy in one form to another, the losses in each stage and the total efficiency of a typical coal-fired power station. It can be inferred that the majority of losses occur during the conversion of thermal energy into mechanical in the turbines, where a big amount of thermal energy, i.e. heat is rejected through the condenser into the atmosphere. These losses are approximately 45% of the input energy and this fact is reasonable enough as it is explained by the second law of thermodynamics, which says that all heat engines have to reject some heat. Other significant losses occur in the boiler where about 6% of the inp ut energy is lost in flue gas and in auxiliary procedures, such as the pumps where the losses are roughly 9%. Therefore a typical coal-fired power plant has about 30% to 40% percentage of efficiency [1, 2]. Fig.4: Conversion energy stages, losses and total efficiency of coal-fired power plants. Source: [2] 3.5 Emissions of coal-fired power plants The typical emissions of plant which does not have any cleaning stages are [1]: Carbon Dioxide (CO2): 700 tonnes/hour Oxides of Nitrogen (NOX): 1t tonne/hour Sulphur Dioxide (SO2): 1-20 tonnes/hour Nitrogen (N): 2500 tonnes/hour Steam: 150 tonnes/hour Fly ash: 10-20 tonnes/hour It is noticeable that about 2500 tonnes/hour of Nitrogen are released, nevertheless nitrogen is the major component of the air we breathe and therefore it is deemed harmless. Moreover about 700 tonnes/hour of Carbon dioxide are discharged during the combustion process and on world bases whole coal-fired power plants are responsible for 21% of global carbon dioxide emissions [10]. Despite the fact that CO2 might be harmless in small concentrations as it is a component of air mix, in bigger amounts it poses serious threats for the environment and contributes to the climate change as several studies have shown [11, 12]. Therefore it is compelling to reduce the emissions of carbon dioxide and for this reason it has been developed several techniques of capturing and storage carbon [2, 13]. Nitrogen oxides contribute to acid rain and harm peoples health. They are discharged in bigger amount when the temperature of the boiler is higher [1]. Sulphur dioxide contributes also to the acid rain and therefore flue gases pass through the desulphurisation unit so as SO2 to be removed. Another very harmful emission of coal-fired power plants is the fly ash, which are known as particulates pollutes the environment in great extent and can also be responsible for respiratory problems in terms of peoples health. However most plants are equipped with precipitators so as to remove this dangerous fly ash as it is referred in Section 3.3. 3.6 Advantages-disadvantages of coal-fired power plants One major advantage of using coal for generating electricity is the reliability that offers. The coal-fired power plants can supply power to the grid with great reliability so as blackouts to be avoided during peak electrical loads. Except for that coal is very cheap fuel compared with other fuels and that fact makes this technology affordable enough and there is in abundance. On the other hand the disadvantages of coal-fired power plants are that they release greenhouse gasses into the atmosphere X. References [1] BOYLE, G., EVERETT, B. and RAMAGE, J.: Energy systems and sustainability,(Oxford university press 2003). [2] SPLIETHOFF, H.: Power generation from solid fuels, (Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010). [3] FINKENRATH, M.,SMITH J. and VOLK D.: CCS retrofit. Analysis of the globally installed coal fired power plant fleet, (International Energy Agency 2012), p 17. [4] ANDRULEIT, H., BABIES H.G., MEBNER, J., REHDER, S., SCHAUER, M. and SCHMIDT, S.: Reserves, resources and availability of energy resources 2011, (German Mineral Resources Agency, Hannover 2011). [5] WORLD ENERGY COUNCIL: 2010 Survey of energy resources. Available on: http://www.worldenergy.org/documents/ser_2010_report_1.pdf. Accessed in October 2012. [6] BP: Statistical review of world energy June 2012. Available on: http://www.bp.com. Accessed in October 2012. [7] THIELEMANN, T., SCHMIDT, S. and GERLING J.P.: Lignite and hard coal: Energy suppliers for world need until the year 2100 An outlook, International journal of coal geology, 2007, 72, pp. 1-14. [8] YEH, S. and EDWARD, S.R.: A centurial history of technological change and learning curves for pulverized coal-fired utility boilers, Energy, 2007, 32, pp. 1996-2005. [9] Image. Available on: http://electricalandelectronics.org/wp-content/uploads/2008/09/steam-power-plant.png. [10] IEA: Power generation from coal: Measuring and reporting efficiency performance and CO2 emissions. Available on: http://www.iea.org/ciab/papers/power_generation_from_coal.pdf. Accessed in October 2012. [11] NORBY, R.J. and LUO, Y.: Evaluating ecosystem responses to rising atmospheric CO2 and global warming in a multi-factor world, New phytologist, 2004, 162, pp. 281-293. [12] DELWORTH, T.L., MAHLMAN, J.D. and KNUTSON, T.R.: Changes in heat index associated with CO2-induced global warming, Climatic change, 1999, 43, pp. 369-386. [13] GIBBINS, J. and CHALMERS, H.: Carbon capture and storage, Energy policy, 2008, 36, pp. 4317-4322.